• A key control policy should be implemented that is well thought out and communicated to all stakeholders. The use of high-security cylinder systems that utilize proprietary patented key blanks limit the potential for unwanted duplication and distribution of keys.

• Student lockers can be installed in classrooms or other areas where they are easier to monitor and do not create bottlenecks in the means of egress system.

• Doors and gates can be used to segregate public use or after-hours space away from other areas of the building not required to be opened. A detailed egress analysis must, however, be undertaken with such doors or gates in both the opened and closed position to verify that sufficient exiting capacity and travel paths are provided.

• While several recent studies have shown that academic achievement improves when students are exposed to natural light, ⁸ windows should only be used strategically. Unless required by code for emergency rescue or ventilation, clearstories, glass block, or secured skylights can be integrated into building designs in lieu of conventional ground-level windows. Also, sidelights should not be placed near exterior doors where they can be readily broken out to allow unrestricted access to the door's exit hardware.

FIRE AND SECURITY ALARM SYSTEM CONSIDERATIONS

Fire alarm systems have long been a mainstay in educational occupancies. The primary purpose of the detection and alarm system is to provide an early warning for building occupants to enact their emergency plans and safely evacuate. NFPA 101 requires that educational occupancies be provided with a code-compliant fire alarm system. Traditionally, initiation of the fire alarm system is typically achieved by manual means. A review of data between 1982 and 1986 revealed that where automatic detection systems were added to complement manual pull stations, the average direct property loss was nearly cut in half. ³ Where acceptable to the Authority Having Jurisdiction, the fire alarm system may be permitted to be used for other emergency signaling or class change functions provided that the fire alarm provides a distinctive signal and over-rides all other uses. It is important to reinforce these distinctive signals during emergency egress and relocation drills so that students and staff can readily discern between them. Also, the components and systems utilized to undertake such combined functions must be compatible and dually listed for their intended use within such integrated systems.

The use of security systems continues to increase within educational facilities. Security systems principally serve to act as a deterrent in that they make it more difficult to commit crimes and make the perpetrator feel less comfortable in their decisions. Most systems incorporate more traditional intrusion detection devices such as door contacts, motion detectors, and window-breakage sensors. Schools commonly include two-way communication capabilities within their public address systems, and some provide strategically placed duress alarm buttons for use by staff. The use of integrated closed-circuit television systems is also on the increase in education occupancies; however, legal counsel should be sought prior to implementing its use. Advances in computer software and technology have increasingly allowed fire, security, and building-related systems to be integrated into common platforms. While the heating, ventilation, air-conditioning (HVAC), lighting, and energy management industries have taken the lead in utilizing these open protocol networked systems, the security, access control, elevator, and fire alarm industries have been slow to follow suit. ¹¹ The advantage of such fire, security, and building system integration is that all of these vital functions can be monitored and controlled in an efficient manner from a single common point. It is important to understand that most codes mandate that where such system integrations occur, the equipment must be appropriately listed, and the fire safety-related functions must take precedence. Examples of this include taking control of the telecommunication system's digital dialer to ensure that emergency forces notification is achieved and shutting down the HVAC systems to limit the spread of smoke. It is also important to ensure that system compatibilities are addressed and that these disparate products are listed to function in the manner intended.

It must be recognized that technologies and equipment are not the answer to all fire and school security problems. The issue comes down to applying technologies that are effective, affordable, useable, maintainable, and politically acceptable. But these sometimes represent difficult trade-offs, and occasionally, compromises must be struck that result in less-than-ideal solutions. For most school districts, funding available for facilities is inadequate for even basic needs, and thus security is often one of the areas that must be curtailed. School cannot conceivably protect against the entire realm of potential safety and security threats. That is why it is important to identify the most likely and plausible threats and focus efforts there. In the end, this strategy will likely include some combination of technologies, personnel, policies, and procedures that do the best job of solving the school's credible fire and security challenges within its fiscal, logistical, and political constraints.

FALSE ALARMS, BOMB THREATS, CRISIS PLANS, AND SCHOOL EVACUATION DRILLS

Unfortunately, false alarms and inadvertent activations of fire alarm and security systems continue to plague many school districts. Good design, specification, installation, inspection, and maintenance practices can go a long way toward lessening the potential for such occurrences. Due to the disruptive and potentially dangerous nature of such repeated occurrences, some additional considerations may be warranted by the fire protection engineer and security consultant. Consideration should be given to placing devices out of the reach of students where possible. Listed or approved protective cages or guards should be placed over fire sprinklers, smoke and heat detectors, security alarm sensors, horns, strobes, and speakers. Pre-action alarm covers with built-in audible warning systems may be placed over fire alarm pull stations as an additional deterrent. The use of alarm verification logic and "smart" self-testing fire and security alarm systems may also lessen the incidence of such unwanted alarms.

Schools across the nation have also been plagued with bomb threats. While actual detonations of explosive devices on school properties are still rare events, the use of real or hoax explosive devices in school settings has increased in recent years. Additionally, real concerns exist with respect to secondary devices being placed with the intent to injure evacuees or public safety entities. One reason is the unprecedented access juveniles have to bomb-making instructions and other terrorist tactics via the Internet. There is also no shortage of propaganda from hate groups and activist organizations trying to persuade individuals to make a statement to society. In order to counteract these types of events, school officials should give consideration to eliciting the phone company's support to install caller identification systems on all phones, record phone calls, and eliminate pay phones.

Finally, the recent spate of highly publicized terrorist activities, school shootings, and sniper events have given school systems pause with respect to conducting emergency fire and evacuation drills. While it may seem under-standable to carry such concerns, schools should not be dissuaded from conducting these vital drills. History is replete with examples where delayed egress led to tragic consequences. But in recognition of these newer concerns, some adjustments may be in order to previously crafted emergency evacuation and relocation drills. One such alteration may be to mandate the involvement of law enforcement agents to supplement the role traditionally played by the fire service. Additionally, administrators or other school-based personnel may be assigned to scan the school grounds and create a safety perimeter until the proper recall signal is sounded.

SOLUTIONS

Approximately 45 years ago, it took the deaths of 92 children and 3 adults in the Our Lady of Angels Grade School fire to raise the national consciousness with respect to the issue of fire safety in schools. More recent events have brought home a similar message with respect to providing security for youngsters from the threats of terrorism and violence.

Fire protection engineers and other fire safety professionals have developed a host of tools to help address the nation's fire problem. But these tools are not static; witness the move toward performance-based fire protection designs. The challenges faced by security experts today is not unlike that faced by fire safety professionals in the wake of the 1958 Our Lady of Angels Grade School fire.

As always, solutions often start with recognition. In this case, it is the recognition that both security-and fire-related emergencies can have a direct bearing upon the safety and security of students. It is not a matter that one is somehow more important than the other. What is needed is a careful and considerate balance that addresses those credible threats that children and staff face in educational occupancies.

Alex L. Szachnowicz is with the Anne Arundel County, Maryland, Board of Education.

REFERENCES

1 Von Dietsch, J., "Learning form the Schools," NFPA Journal, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, September/October 1997, p. 104.

2 Ahrens, M., "Selections from the U.S. Fire Problem Overview Report – Leading Causes and Other Pattern and Trends – Educational Properties," National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, June 2001.

3 Taylor, K., "A Brief Look at Structural Fires in Educational Properties in the United States form 1982 to 1986," NFPA Journal, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, May/June 1990, pp. 61-69.

4 "Indicators of School Crime and Safety (2001)-Executive Summary," National Council for Educational Statistics, U.S. Department of Education, 2002.

5 Trump, K., "2002 NASRO School Resource Officer Survey," National Association of School Resource Officers, September 2002.

6 "The Appropriate and Effective Use of Security Technologies in U.S. Schools," National Institute of Justice, U.S Department of Justice, 1999.

7 NFPA 101, Life Safety Code, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, 2000.

8 "Making a World of Difference," Fanning/Howey Associates, Inc., Celina, OH, 1997.

9 Thomas, I.R., "Effectiveness of Fire Safety Components and Systems," Journal of Fire Protection Engineering, Society of Fire Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, May 2002, pp. 63-78.

10 Queeno, C., "What's Ahead for Campus Security," College Planning & Management, Peter Li, Inc., MA, March 2000.